Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Significance of transport in animals
Types of circulatory systems - Open and closed circulatory systems

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Define the term transport system in animals
- Explain the importance of transport in animals
- Relate transport systems in animals to real-life examples such as how blood carries oxygen to muscles during exercise

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Search for information on the meaning and importance of transport systems in animals using print and non-print media
- Discuss the meaning of a transport system in animals
- Explain the importance of transport systems in distributing oxygen, nutrients, hormones and removing waste products
- Share findings with peers

Why is a transport system important for the survival of animals?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 186
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 188
- Charts showing circulatory systems

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Types of circulatory systems - Single and double circulatory systems
Transport system in insects
Transport system in fish - Structure and blood flow

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Distinguish between single and double circulatory systems in animals
- Illustrate single and double circulatory systems
- Connect single circulation in fish to real-life observations of how fish survive in aquatic environments

- Identify the components of the transport system in insects
- Describe the movement of haemolymph within the body cavity of an insect
- Relate the open circulatory system in insects to real-life observations of how small-bodied insects like houseflies and cockroaches function efficiently

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Study illustrations of single and double circulatory systems
- Discuss how blood flows through the heart once in single circulation and twice in double circulation
- Compare single and double circulatory systems giving examples of animals
- Draw and label diagrams of single and double circulatory systems
- Search for information on the transport system in insects
- Study the structure of the transport system in insects including the dorsal vessel, ostia, haemolymph and haemocoel
- Describe the circulation of haemolymph in the body cavity
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the transport system in insects

How many times does blood pass through the heart in single and double circulatory systems?
What are the components of the circulatory system in insects and how does haemolymph flow?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 189
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing single and double circulation
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 190
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing insect circulatory system
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 192
- Charts showing fish circulatory system

- Written assignments - Oral questions - Peer assessment of drawings
- Labelled drawings - Oral questions - Peer assessment

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Transport system in fish - Illustrating the circulatory system

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Illustrate the structure of the transport system in fish
- Explain why fish have a single closed circulatory system
- Relate the efficiency of the fish circulatory system to real-life observations of how fish remain active in water

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the circulatory system in fish
- Use digital devices to search for video animations of the transport system in fish
- Exchange exercise books with peers for peer assessment of drawings
- Discuss the advantages of a single closed circulatory system in fish

Why is the circulatory system in fish described as a single closed system?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 193
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Peer assessment of drawings - Oral questions - Written assignments

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Transport system in amphibians - Structure and blood flow
Transport system in amphibians - Illustrating the circulatory system

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Identify the structures that compose the transport system in amphibians
- Describe pulmonary and systemic circulation in amphibians
- Connect the three-chambered heart in amphibians to real-life understanding of how frogs survive both in water and on land

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Search for information on the transport system in amphibians using print and non-print resources
- Study illustrations of the transport system in amphibians
- Identify the three-chambered heart (one ventricle and two atria), blood vessels, lungs and blood
- Describe pulmonary and systemic circulation in amphibians

How does the double circulatory system in amphibians support their life on land and in water?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 194
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing amphibian circulatory system
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 195
- Reference books

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Transport system in reptiles - Structure and blood flow

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Identify the structures that compose the transport system in reptiles
- Describe pulmonary and systemic circulation in reptiles
- Connect the partial septum in the reptile heart to real-life understanding of why reptiles like chameleons and lizards bask in the sun to regulate body temperature

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Search for information on the transport system in reptiles using print and non-print resources
- Study illustrations of the circulatory system in reptiles
- Identify the three-chambered heart with a partial septum and the four-chambered heart of the crocodile
- Describe pulmonary and systemic circulation in reptiles

How does the partial septum in the reptile heart reduce mixing of blood?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 197
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing reptile circulatory system

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Transport system in reptiles - Illustrating the circulatory system
Transport system in mammals - Structure and components

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Illustrate the structure of the transport system in reptiles
- Explain the significance of the partial septum in the reptile heart
- Relate the ectothermic nature of reptiles to real-life observations of lizards sunbathing on rocks and walls

- Identify the structures that compose the transport system in mammals
- Describe the components of the mammalian circulatory system
- Relate the four-chambered mammalian heart to real-life understanding of why mammals like humans can perform sustained physical activities

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the circulatory system in reptiles
- Discuss the role of the partial septum in reducing mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
- Compare the circulatory systems of amphibians and reptiles
- Share drawings with peers for peer assessment
- Search for information on the transport system in mammals using print and non-print resources
- Study illustrations and photographs of the circulatory system in mammals
- Identify the four-chambered heart, blood vessels, blood and circulatory pathways
- Discuss the components of the mammalian circulatory system

Why is the transport system in reptiles suited to their ectothermic nature?
What are the key components of the mammalian transport system?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 198
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 199
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing mammalian circulatory system

- Peer assessment of drawings - Oral questions - Written assignments
- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Transport system in mammals - Pulmonary and systemic circulation

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Describe pulmonary and systemic circulation in mammals
- Trace the pathway of blood flow in the mammalian circulatory system
- Connect double circulation in mammals to real-life experiences like increased heartbeat rate during running or exercise

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Use digital devices to search for video animations illustrating the transport system in mammals
- Trace the pathway of blood flow in the mammalian circulatory system
- Describe pulmonary circulation (heart to lungs and back) and systemic circulation (heart to body and back)
- Discuss with peers

How does blood flow through the mammalian heart in pulmonary and systemic circulation?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 200
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Class discussions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Transport system in mammals - Illustrating the circulatory system

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Illustrate the structure of the transport system in mammals
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the mammalian circulatory system
- Relate the efficient separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to real-life benefits like high energy levels in active mammals such as cheetahs and horses

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the circulatory system in mammals
- Use digital devices to search for pictures showing the transport system in mammals
- Exchange exercise books with peers for peer assessment
- Compare the circulatory systems of insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles and mammals

Why do mammals have a more efficient circulatory system compared to other animals?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 200
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Peer assessment of drawings - Written assignments - Oral questions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Transport system in mammals - Illustrating the circulatory system

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Illustrate the structure of the transport system in mammals
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the mammalian circulatory system
- Relate the efficient separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to real-life benefits like high energy levels in active mammals such as cheetahs and horses

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the circulatory system in mammals
- Use digital devices to search for pictures showing the transport system in mammals
- Exchange exercise books with peers for peer assessment
- Compare the circulatory systems of insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles and mammals

Why do mammals have a more efficient circulatory system compared to other animals?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 200
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Peer assessment of drawings - Written assignments - Oral questions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Transport system in mammals - Dissection of a small mammal
Pumping mechanism of the mammalian heart - Structure of the heart

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Dissect a small mammal to observe parts of the transport system
- Identify the heart, lungs, blood vessels and other organs of the transport system
- Handle specimens humanely and relate the observed structures to how the circulatory system supports life in real mammals

- Describe the structure of the mammalian heart including its four chambers
- Identify the blood vessels that carry blood to and from the heart
- Relate the structure of the heart to real-life understanding of heartbeat sounds heard through a stethoscope during medical check-ups

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Wear protective clothing (hand gloves and laboratory coat)
- With the help of the teacher, carry out the dissection of a freshly killed rat or rabbit
- Observe the thoracic cavity containing the heart and lungs
- Identify the pulmonary vein, pulmonary artery, blood vessels and renal veins
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the transport system of the mammal
- Study illustrations of the mammalian heart
- Identify the four chambers (right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle and left ventricle)
- Identify blood vessels connected to the heart (vena cava, aorta, pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein)
- Discuss the roles of the ventricles, atria and valves in pumping blood

What structures can be observed in the transport system of a dissected mammal?
What is the role of each chamber and valve in the mammalian heart?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 201
- Freshly killed rat or rabbit
- Dissecting board and pins
- Cotton wool
- Hand lens
- Protective clothing
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 202
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing the mammalian heart

- Labelled drawings - Observation - Oral questions
- Oral questions - Labelled drawings - Written assignments

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Pumping mechanism of the mammalian heart - Structure of the heart

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Describe the structure of the mammalian heart including its four chambers
- Identify the blood vessels that carry blood to and from the heart
- Relate the structure of the heart to real-life understanding of heartbeat sounds heard through a stethoscope during medical check-ups

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Study illustrations of the mammalian heart
- Identify the four chambers (right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle and left ventricle)
- Identify blood vessels connected to the heart (vena cava, aorta, pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein)
- Discuss the roles of the ventricles, atria and valves in pumping blood

What is the role of each chamber and valve in the mammalian heart?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 202
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing the mammalian heart

- Oral questions - Labelled drawings - Written assignments

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Pumping mechanism of the mammalian heart - The cardiac cycle

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Describe the pumping mechanism of the mammalian heart
- Explain systole and diastole in the cardiac cycle
- Connect the cardiac cycle to real-life experiences such as feeling the pulse at the wrist or neck during exercise

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Watch animations illustrating the pumping mechanism of the mammalian heart
- Describe the flow of blood from the vena cava through the heart chambers and out through the aorta
- Explain the role of valves in preventing backflow of blood
- Discuss the contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) phases of the cardiac cycle

How does the heart pump blood through the body in a continuous cycle?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 203
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Class discussions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Human lymphatic system - Structure and components

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Describe the human lymphatic system
- Identify the components of the lymphatic system
- Relate the lymphatic system to real-life situations such as swelling of lymph nodes during infections like sore throat or tonsillitis

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Watch video animations on the human lymphatic system using digital devices
- Identify the components of the lymphatic system (lymph fluid, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and lymphoid organs)
- Discuss the structure and arrangement of the lymphatic system
- Share findings with peers for discussion

What are the components of the human lymphatic system and how are they arranged?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 204
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing the lymphatic system

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Human lymphatic system - Functions
Human immune system - Types of immunity

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Explain the functions of the human lymphatic system
- Describe how the lymphatic system helps maintain fluid balance and defend against infections
- Relate lymphatic functions to real-life examples such as how swollen ankles (oedema) occur when the lymphatic system fails to drain excess fluid

- Describe the immune system in human beings
- Distinguish between inherited and acquired immunity
- Relate immunity to real-life experiences such as why a person who recovers from chickenpox rarely gets it again

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss the functions of the human lymphatic system including maintaining fluid balance, filtering pathogens and absorbing fats
- Explain how lymph nodes house immune cells that detect and fight infections
- Describe how the lymphatic system returns excess tissue fluid to the bloodstream
- Share work with classmates for comparison
- Study a flow chart illustrating forms of immunity
- Distinguish between inherited (innate) and acquired immunity
- Discuss how inherited immunity is passed from parent to offspring
- Explain how acquired immunity develops through interaction with the environment
- Distinguish between active and passive immunity

How does the lymphatic system protect the body against infections?
What is the difference between inherited and acquired immunity?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 205
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 206
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing types of immunity

- Written assignments - Oral questions - Class discussions
- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Human immune system - Types of immunity

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Describe the immune system in human beings
- Distinguish between inherited and acquired immunity
- Relate immunity to real-life experiences such as why a person who recovers from chickenpox rarely gets it again

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Study a flow chart illustrating forms of immunity
- Distinguish between inherited (innate) and acquired immunity
- Discuss how inherited immunity is passed from parent to offspring
- Explain how acquired immunity develops through interaction with the environment
- Distinguish between active and passive immunity

What is the difference between inherited and acquired immunity?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 206
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing types of immunity

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Human immune system - Active and passive immunity

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Distinguish between active and passive immunity
- Give examples of naturally and artificially acquired immunity
- Connect vaccination programmes in Kenya (such as polio and measles vaccines) to the concept of artificially acquired active immunity

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss active immunity where the body produces its own antibodies when triggered by antigens
- Discuss passive immunity where the body receives antibodies from an external source
- Give examples such as breastfeeding (passive) and recovery from disease (active)
- Relate naturally and artificially acquired immunity to real-life vaccination programmes

How do vaccines help the body develop immunity against diseases?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 207
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Written assignments - Oral questions - Class discussions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Blood clotting mechanism in humans

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Describe the mechanism of blood clotting in human beings
- Identify the role of platelets, thromboplastin, thrombin and fibrin in blood clotting
- Connect blood clotting to real-life experiences such as how a cut on the skin stops bleeding and forms a scab

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Watch video animations on the mechanism of blood clotting using digital devices
- Identify the blood cells (platelets) involved in blood clotting
- Describe the steps in the blood clotting process: platelets release thromboplastin, prothrombin converts to thrombin, fibrinogen converts to fibrin
- Discuss the role of calcium ions and vitamin K in blood clotting

What happens in the body when a blood vessel is injured to stop bleeding?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 207
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing the blood clotting process

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Blood clotting mechanism - Importance and flow chart

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Explain the importance of blood clotting in mammals
- Illustrate the blood clotting process using a flow chart
- Relate blood clotting to real-life medical situations such as why doctors check clotting time before surgery and why haemophilia patients need special care

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Study a flow chart summarising the blood clotting process
- Describe the mechanism of blood clotting step by step
- Discuss the importance of blood clotting in preventing blood loss, entry of pathogens and healing of wounds
- Share responses with peers for comparison and assessment

Why is blood clotting important for the survival of mammals?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 208
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Written assignments - Oral questions - Flow chart construction

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

ABO and rhesus factor blood grouping systems - Blood groups and antigens

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Explain the ABO blood grouping system in human beings
- Identify the antigens and antibodies in each blood group
- Relate blood grouping to real-life situations such as why hospitals test blood groups before transfusion

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Search for information on the ABO blood grouping system
- Discuss how antigens A and B determine blood groups (A, B, AB and O)
- Identify the antibodies present in each blood group
- Prepare charts illustrating blood groups, antigens and antibodies
- Visit a health facility where possible and discuss blood grouping with a resource person

What determines a person's blood group?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 209
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing ABO blood grouping

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Chart construction

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

ABO and rhesus factor blood grouping systems - Rhesus factor and blood transfusion

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Explain the rhesus factor blood grouping system
- Describe blood donor-recipient compatibility
- Connect blood transfusion compatibility to real-life medical emergencies where matching blood types saves lives

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss the rhesus factor (Rh+ and Rh-) and its role in blood transfusion and pregnancy
- Explain the concepts of universal donor (O) and universal recipient (AB)
- Prepare charts illustrating blood donor-recipient compatibility
- Discuss the importance of knowing one's blood type and rhesus status for medical safety

Why is it important to determine blood compatibility before transfusion?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 210
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing blood donor-recipient compatibility

- Written assignments - Oral questions - Chart construction

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Respiratory surfaces in animals - General characteristics

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Define gaseous exchange and respiration in animals
- Explain the general characteristics of respiratory surfaces in animals
- Relate respiratory surface characteristics to real-life examples such as why the lungs have a large surface area similar to a tennis court in size

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Search for information on the general characteristics of respiratory surfaces in animals using print and non-print media
- Discuss the general characteristics including large surface area, thin walls, moist surfaces, rich blood supply and permeability
- Explain how each characteristic influences the efficiency of gaseous exchange
- Share findings with peers

What characteristics make respiratory surfaces efficient for gaseous exchange?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 211
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Respiratory structures in insects - Tracheal system
Respiratory structures in insects - Adaptations and observation
Respiratory structures in fish - Structure of gills
Respiratory structures in fish - Counter current flow and practical observation

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Describe the structure of the tracheal system in insects
- Identify spiracles, trachea and tracheoles in the tracheal system
- Relate the tracheal system to real-life observations of how spiracles on a grasshopper's body allow it to breathe

- Describe the structure of the gills in fish
- Identify the gill bar, gill rakers and gill filaments
- Relate the structure of gills to real-life observations of how fish breathe in water through their operculum

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Study illustrations of the tracheal system in insects
- Identify the spiracles, trachea, tracheoles and air sacs
- Describe how valves on the spiracles regulate air flow into the insect's body
- Discuss how the tracheal system delivers oxygen directly to cells
- Study photographs and illustrations of the gills of a bony fish
- Identify the gill bar, gill rakers and gill filaments
- Describe how each part of the gills is adapted for gaseous exchange
- Discuss how gill rakers prevent solid particles from reaching the gill filaments

How does the tracheal system in insects deliver oxygen directly to body cells?
What structures make up the gills of a fish and how are they adapted for gaseous exchange?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 213
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing tracheal system
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 214
- Live or dead locust or grasshopper
- Hand lens
- Boiling tube
- Protective clothing
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 216
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing fish gills
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 217
- Fresh or preserved bony fish
- Scalpel
- Hand lens
- Protective clothing

- Oral questions - Labelled drawings - Written assignments

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Respiratory structures in amphibians

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Describe the respiratory structures in amphibians (skin, lungs and buccal cavity)
- Explain how each respiratory structure is adapted for gaseous exchange
- Relate amphibian breathing through skin to real-life understanding of why frogs must stay near moist environments to survive

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss how amphibians use the skin, lungs and buccal cavity for gaseous exchange
- Describe the adaptations of the skin (thin, moist, rich blood supply) for gaseous exchange
- Explain gaseous exchange in the lungs and buccal cavity of amphibians
- Study illustrations showing the respiratory structures in amphibians
- Share findings with peers

Why do amphibians use multiple respiratory structures for gaseous exchange?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 218
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing amphibian respiratory structures

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Class discussions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Respiratory structures in birds
Mechanism of gaseous exchange in humans - Respiratory structures

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Describe the respiratory structure in birds
- Explain how air sacs and para-bronchi are adapted for efficient gaseous exchange
- Relate the efficient respiratory system of birds to real-life observations of how birds sustain long-distance flights without fatigue

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Study illustrations of the respiratory structure in birds
- Describe the role of air sacs in keeping air flowing in one direction through the lungs
- Explain the function of para-bronchi in allowing continuous airflow during inhalation and exhalation
- Discuss the counter current system in bird lungs for maximum gaseous exchange

How do air sacs in birds ensure a continuous supply of fresh air to the lungs?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 220
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing bird respiratory system
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 221
- Charts showing human respiratory system

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Inhalation and exhalation in humans

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Describe the process of inhalation and exhalation in human beings
- Explain the role of the diaphragm, rib cage and intercostal muscles in breathing
- Connect breathing mechanics to real-life situations like how deep breathing exercises help calm the body during stress

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Study illustrations showing what happens during inhalation and exhalation
- Describe how the diaphragm contracts and flattens during inhalation increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity
- Explain how the diaphragm relaxes during exhalation reducing the lung volume
- Discuss the role of external and internal intercostal muscles in moving the rib cage

What changes occur in the chest cavity during inhalation and exhalation?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 222
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing inhalation and exhalation

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Model to demonstrate inhalation and exhalation
Dissection to observe gaseous exchange structures in mammals

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Construct a model to demonstrate inhalation and exhalation in human beings
- Relate the parts of the model to the structures of the human respiratory system
- Connect model-making to real-life applications of models in medical training and science education

- Dissect a small mammal to observe the gaseous exchange structures
- Identify the trachea, bronchi, lungs and alveoli in the dissected mammal
- Relate the observed structures to real-life understanding of how lung diseases like asthma affect the airways

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Set up the bell jar apparatus with rubber sheet, Y-shaped connecting tube and balloons
- Pull down the rubber sheet to demonstrate inhalation and observe the balloons inflate
- Release the rubber sheet to demonstrate exhalation and observe the balloons deflate
- Relate the rubber sheet to the diaphragm, balloons to the lungs and bell jar to the chest cavity
- Wear protective clothing
- With the help of the teacher, dissect a freshly killed rat or rabbit to observe the gaseous exchange structures
- Identify the trachea, lungs and observe the internal structures
- Connect a drinking straw to the trachea and blow air to observe the lungs inflate
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the gaseous exchange structures

How does the bell jar model help demonstrate the process of breathing in humans?
What gaseous exchange structures can be observed in a dissected small mammal?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 224
- Bell jar or plastic bottle
- Rubber stopper
- Y-shaped connecting tube
- Balloons
- Rubber sheet
- Protective clothing
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 225
- Freshly killed rat or rabbit
- Dissecting board and pins
- Scalpel or pair of scissors
- Hand lens
- Drinking straw
- Protective clothing

- Model construction - Oral questions - Observation
- Labelled drawings - Observation - Oral questions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Dissection to observe gaseous exchange structures in mammals

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Dissect a small mammal to observe the gaseous exchange structures
- Identify the trachea, bronchi, lungs and alveoli in the dissected mammal
- Relate the observed structures to real-life understanding of how lung diseases like asthma affect the airways

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Wear protective clothing
- With the help of the teacher, dissect a freshly killed rat or rabbit to observe the gaseous exchange structures
- Identify the trachea, lungs and observe the internal structures
- Connect a drinking straw to the trachea and blow air to observe the lungs inflate
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the gaseous exchange structures

What gaseous exchange structures can be observed in a dissected small mammal?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 225
- Freshly killed rat or rabbit
- Dissecting board and pins
- Scalpel or pair of scissors
- Hand lens
- Drinking straw
- Protective clothing

- Labelled drawings - Observation - Oral questions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Aerobic respiration in animals

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Describe the process of aerobic respiration in animals
- Write the word equation for aerobic respiration
- Relate aerobic respiration to real-life activities such as how the body uses oxygen to break down food during walking, running or studying

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss the process of aerobic respiration where glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen to produce energy, carbon (IV) oxide and water
- Write the word equation for aerobic respiration
- Describe the two stages of aerobic respiration: glycolysis and Kreb's cycle
- Discuss the uses of energy produced during respiration

How does the body use oxygen to break down food and release energy?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 227
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Demonstrating aerobic respiration in animals

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Carry out an experiment to demonstrate aerobic respiration in animals
- Explain why lime water turns milky in the presence of carbon (IV) oxide produced during respiration
- Connect the experiment to real-life understanding of why we exhale carbon (IV) oxide which can be detected by breathing into lime water

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Set up the apparatus with a small animal (snail or rat), bell jar, soda lime and lime water
- Observe changes in the lime water in flasks A and B
- Explain that lime water in flask A stays clear because soda lime absorbs carbon (IV) oxide from the atmosphere
- Explain that lime water in flask B turns milky due to carbon (IV) oxide produced by the animal during respiration

How can we demonstrate that animals produce carbon (IV) oxide during aerobic respiration?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 228
- Small animal (snail or rat)
- Bell jar
- Conical flask
- Delivery tubes
- Soda lime
- Lime water
- Protective clothing

- Observation - Oral questions - Written reports

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Anaerobic respiration and oxygen debt

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Describe the process of anaerobic respiration in animals
- Explain the concept of oxygen debt
- Relate anaerobic respiration to real-life experiences such as muscle cramps and fatigue felt after sprinting or intense exercise

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss anaerobic respiration where glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen to produce lactic acid and energy
- Engage in vigorous physical activity for 3 minutes and observe increased breathing rate
- Explain the concept of oxygen debt as the extra amount of oxygen needed to eliminate lactic acid
- Discuss why breathing rate remains faster after stopping intense physical exercise

Why do muscles feel fatigued and sore after vigorous physical exercise?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 229
- Stopwatch
- Playfield
- Writing materials

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation of physical activity

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Factors affecting energy requirement in humans

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Identify factors affecting energy requirement in human beings
- Explain how age, sex, body size and physical activity affect energy needs
- Relate energy requirements to real-life examples such as why athletes eat more food than office workers and why growing teenagers need more energy than elderly people

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Search for information on factors affecting energy requirement in human beings
- Compare the energy needs of teenagers and the elderly, males and females, athletes and secretaries
- Discuss how pregnant and lactating mothers require more energy
- Share ideas in class for discussion

Why do different people require different amounts of energy?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 231
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Class discussions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Respiratory substrates

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Identify the respiratory substrates broken down during respiration
- Explain why glucose is the main respiratory substrate
- Relate respiratory substrates to real-life dietary choices such as why carbohydrate-rich foods like ugali and rice are staple energy sources in many Kenyan households

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss respiratory substrates including carbohydrates, fats and proteins
- Explain that glucose is the main respiratory substrate because it is readily broken down
- Discuss why fats provide more energy than carbohydrates but take longer to break down
- Explain that proteins are used for respiration only when carbohydrates and fats are unavailable

Which food substances are broken down to provide energy during respiration?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 232
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Calculating the respiratory quotient

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Define respiratory quotient (RQ)
- Calculate the respiratory quotient for various foods
- Relate RQ values to real-life applications such as how doctors use RQ to assess a patient's metabolic state and determine which substrates their body is burning

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss the formula for calculating respiratory quotient: RQ = CO₂ produced / O₂ consumed
- Calculate the RQ for carbohydrates (RQ = 1.0), proteins (RQ = 0.9) and lipids (RQ = 0.7)
- Solve practical problems on calculating RQ
- Discuss what an RQ value of more than 1 indicates (anaerobic respiration)

How is the respiratory quotient used to determine the substrate being oxidised during respiration?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 233
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Written assignments - Oral questions - Problem-solving exercises

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Factors affecting the rate of respiration

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Identify factors that affect the rate of respiration in animals
- Explain how temperature, oxygen availability, substrate amount and age affect the rate of respiration
- Connect these factors to real-life examples such as why food stored in cold refrigerators lasts longer because low temperature slows down microbial respiration

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Brainstorm and identify factors that affect the rate of respiration
- Discuss how an increase in temperature increases the rate of enzyme activity and respiration
- Explain how the amount of oxygen and substrate available affect the rate of respiration
- Discuss how age and hormones such as adrenaline affect the rate of respiration

How do changes in temperature and oxygen levels affect the rate of respiration?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 234
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Class discussions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Importance of gaseous exchange and respiration in animals

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

- Explain the importance of gaseous exchange and respiration in animals
- Describe how gaseous exchange and respiration support various body functions
- Relate the importance of gaseous exchange and respiration to real-life situations such as why adequate ventilation in classrooms and homes is essential for good health

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss how gaseous exchange supplies the body with oxygen used for respiration and removes carbon (IV) oxide
- Explain how respiration provides energy for physical activities, muscle contraction, growth and body temperature regulation
- Discuss how gaseous exchange ensures survival of animals in different habitats
- Share findings with peers

Why are gaseous exchange and respiration essential for the survival of animals?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 235
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Class discussions