ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Definition of Acids
Strength of Acids

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define an acid in terms of hydrogen ions
-Investigate reactions of magnesium and zinc carbonate with different acids
-Write equations for reactions taking place
-Explain why magnesium strip should be cleaned

Class experiment: React cleaned magnesium strips with 2M HCl, 2M ethanoic acid, 2M H₂SO₄, 2M ethanedioic acid. Record observations in table. Repeat using zinc carbonate. Write chemical equations. Discuss hydrogen ion displacement and gas evolution.

Magnesium strips, zinc carbonate, 2M HCl, 2M ethanoic acid, 2M H₂SO₄, 2M ethanedioic acid, test tubes, test tube rack
2M HCl, 2M ethanoic acid, universal indicator, pH chart, electrical conductivity apparatus, milliammeter, carbon electrodes, beakers, wires

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 1-3

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Definition of Bases
Strength of Bases
Acid-Base Reactions
Effect of Solvent on Acids

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define a base in terms of hydroxide ions
-Investigate effect of calcium hydroxide in water
-Test solutions with litmus paper
-Explain dissociation of bases in water

Teacher demonstration: Place dry calcium hydroxide on dry red litmus paper. Dissolve calcium hydroxide in water, test with litmus paper and phenolphthalein. Discuss observations and write dissociation equation. Define bases in terms of OH⁻ ions.

Calcium hydroxide, red litmus paper, phenolphthalein indicator, distilled water, test tubes, spatula, evaporating dish
2M NaOH, 2M ammonia solution, universal indicator, pH chart, electrical conductivity apparatus, milliammeter, carbon electrodes
Various acids and bases from previous lessons, indicators, beakers, measuring cylinders, stirring rods
HCl gas, distilled water, methylbenzene, magnesium ribbon, calcium carbonate, litmus paper, test tubes, gas absorption apparatus

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 5-6

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Effect of Solvent on Bases
Amphoteric Oxides and Hydroxides
Definition of Salts and Precipitation
Solubility of Chlorides, Sulphates and Sulphites
Complex Ions Formation
Solubility and Saturated Solutions

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Investigate effect of polar and non-polar solvents on ammonia gas
-Compare ammonia behavior in water vs methylbenzene
-Explain formation of ammonium hydroxide
-Write equations for ammonia dissolution in water
- Find out cations that form insoluble chlorides, sulphates and sulphites
-Write ionic equations for formation of insoluble salts
-Distinguish between sulphate and sulphite precipitates
-Investigate effect of warming on precipitates

Class experiment: Test dry ammonia with dry litmus. Dissolve ammonia in water and test with litmus. Dissolve ammonia in methylbenzene and test with litmus. Record observations in table. Write equation for NH₃ + H₂O reaction. Explain why only aqueous ammonia shows basic properties.
Class experiment: Add NaCl, Na₂SO₄, Na₂SO₃ to solutions of Pb²⁺, Ba²⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Zn²⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Al³⁺. Warm mixtures. Record observations in table. Test sulphite precipitates with dilute HCl. List soluble and insoluble salts.

Dry ammonia gas, distilled water, methylbenzene, red litmus paper, test tubes, gas collection apparatus
Al₂O₃, ZnO, PbO, Zn(OH)₂, Al(OH)₃, Pb(OH)₂, 2M HNO₃, 2M NaOH, boiling tubes, heating source
Na₂CO₃ solution, salt solutions containing various metal ions, test tubes, droppers
2M NaCl, 2M Na₂SO₄, 2M Na₂SO₃, 0.1M salt solutions, dilute HCl, test tubes, heating source
2M NaOH, 2M NH₃ solution, 0.5M salt solutions, test tubes, droppers
Saturated KNO₃ solution, evaporating dish, watch glass, measuring cylinder, thermometer, balance, heating source

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 9-10
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 14-16

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Effect of Temperature on Solubility
Solubility Curves and Applications

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Investigate the effect of temperature on solubility of potassium chlorate
-Record temperature at which crystals appear
-Calculate solubility at different temperatures
-Plot solubility curve

Class experiment: Dissolve 4g KClO₃ in 15cm³ water by warming. Cool while stirring and note crystallization temperature. Add 5cm³ water portions and repeat until total volume is 40cm³. Calculate solubility in g/100g water for each temperature. Plot solubility vs temperature graph.

KClO₃, measuring cylinders, thermometer, burette, boiling tubes, heating source, graph paper
Graph paper, ruler, pencil, calculator, data tables from textbook

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 18-20

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Fractional Crystallization
Hardness of Water - Investigation

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define fractional crystallization
-Apply knowledge of solubility curves in separation of salts
-Calculate masses of salts that crystallize
-Explain separation of salt mixtures

Work through separation problems using solubility data for KNO₃ and KClO₃ mixtures. Calculate which salt crystallizes first when cooled from 50°C to 20°C. Plot combined solubility curves. Discuss applications in Lake Magadi and Ngomeni salt works. Solve practice problems.

Calculator, graph paper, data tables, worked examples from textbook
Soap solution, burette, various salt solutions, conical flasks, distilled water, tap water, rainwater, heating source

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 21-22

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Types and Causes of Water Hardness
Effects of Hard Water

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define temporary and permanent hardness
-Explain causes of temporary hardness
-Explain causes of permanent hardness
-Write equations for decomposition of hydrogen carbonates

Q/A: Review previous experiment results. Explain temporary hardness caused by Ca(HCO₃)₂ and Mg(HCO₃)₂. Write decomposition equations when boiled. Explain permanent hardness caused by CaSO₄, MgSO₄, Ca(NO₃)₂, Mg(NO₃)₂. Discuss why permanent hardness cannot be removed by boiling.

Student books, examples from previous experiment, chalkboard for equations
Samples of fur deposits, pictures of scaled pipes, calculator for cost analysis

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 24-25

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Methods of Removing Hardness I
Methods of Removing Hardness II
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
Enthalpy Notation and Energy Content

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain removal of hardness by boiling
-Explain removal by distillation
-Write equations for these processes
-Compare effectiveness of different methods
- Define endothermic and exothermic reactions using ΔH notation
-Investigate temperature changes when ammonium nitrate and sodium hydroxide dissolve in water
-Explain observations made during dissolution
-Draw energy level diagrams for endothermic and exothermic reactions

Demonstrate boiling method: Boil hard water samples from previous experiments and test with soap. Write equations for Ca(HCO₃)₂ and Mg(HCO₃)₂ decomposition. Discuss distillation method using apparatus setup. Compare costs and effectiveness. Explain why boiling only removes temporary hardness.
Class experiment: Wrap 250ml plastic beakers with tissue paper. Dissolve 2 spatulafuls of NH₄NO₃ in 100ml distilled water, record temperature changes. Repeat with NaOH pellets. Compare initial and final temperatures. Draw energy level diagrams showing relative energies of reactants and products.

Hard water samples, heating source, soap solution, distillation apparatus diagram
Na₂CO₃ solution, hard water samples, ion exchange resin diagram, Ca(OH)₂, NH₃ solution
250ml plastic beakers, tissue paper, rubber bands, NH₄NO₃, NaOH pellets, distilled water, thermometers, spatulas, measuring cylinders
Student books, calculators, worked examples from textbook, chalkboard for calculations

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 25-26
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 29-31

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Bond Breaking and Bond Formation
Latent Heat of Fusion and Vaporization
Bond Energy Calculations

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain that energy changes are due to bond breaking and bond formation
-Describe bond breaking as endothermic and bond formation as exothermic
-Investigate energy changes during melting and boiling
-Plot heating curves for pure substances

Class experiment: Heat crushed ice while stirring with thermometer. Record temperature every minute until ice melts completely, then continue until water boils. Plot temperature-time graph. Explain constant temperature during melting and boiling in terms of bond breaking. Discuss latent heat of fusion and vaporization.

Crushed pure ice, 250ml glass beakers, thermometers, heating source, stopwatch, graph paper, stirring rods
Data tables showing molar heats of fusion/vaporization, calculators, heating curves from previous lesson
Bond energy data tables, calculators, worked examples, practice problems

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 32-35

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Determination of Enthalpy of Solution I
Thermochemical Equations

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Determine the enthalpy changes of solution of ammonium nitrate and sodium hydroxide
-Calculate enthalpy change using ΔH = mcΔT
-Calculate number of moles of solute dissolved
-Determine molar heat of solution

Class experiment: Dissolve exactly 2.0g NH₄NO₃ in 100ml distilled water in plastic beaker. Record temperature change. Repeat with 2.0g NaOH. Calculate enthalpy changes using ΔH = mcΔT where m = 100g, c = 4.2 kJ kg⁻¹K⁻¹. Calculate moles dissolved and molar heat of solution.

250ml plastic beakers, 2.0g samples of NH₄NO₃ and NaOH, distilled water, thermometers, measuring cylinders, analytical balance, calculators
Results from previous experiment, graph paper for energy level diagrams, practice examples

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 36-38

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Enthalpy of Solution of Concentrated Sulphuric Acid
Enthalpy of Combustion

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Determine heat of solution of concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid
-Apply safety precautions when handling concentrated acids
-Calculate enthalpy change considering density and purity
-Write thermochemical equation for the reaction

Teacher demonstration: Carefully add 2cm³ concentrated H₂SO₄ to 98cm³ distilled water in wrapped beaker (NEVER vice versa). Record temperature change. Calculate mass of acid using density (1.84 g/cm³) and purity (98%). Calculate molar heat of solution. Emphasize safety - always add acid to water.

Concentrated H₂SO₄, distilled water, 250ml plastic beaker, tissue paper, measuring cylinders, thermometer, safety equipment
Ethanol, small bottles with wicks, 250ml glass beakers, tripod stands, wire gauze, thermometers, analytical balance, measuring cylinders

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 39-41

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Enthalpy of Displacement
Enthalpy of Neutralization
Standard Conditions and Standard Enthalpy Changes
Hess's Law - Introduction and Theory

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define molar heat of displacement
-Investigate displacement of copper(II) ions by zinc
-Calculate molar heat of displacement
-Explain relationship between position in reactivity series and heat of displacement
- Identify standard conditions for measuring enthalpy changes
-Define standard enthalpy changes using ΔH° notation
-Explain importance of standard conditions
-Use subscripts to denote different types of enthalpy changes

Class experiment: Add 4.0g zinc powder to 100cm³ of 0.5M CuSO₄ solution in wrapped plastic beaker. Record temperature change and observations. Calculate moles of Zn used and Cu²⁺ displaced. Determine molar heat of displacement. Write ionic equation. Discuss why excess zinc is used. Compare with theoretical value.
Q/A: Review previous enthalpy measurements. Introduce standard conditions: 25°C (298K) and 1 atmosphere pressure (101.325 kPa). Explain ΔH° notation and subscripts (ΔH°c for combustion, ΔH°f for formation, etc.). Discuss why standard conditions are necessary for comparison. Practice using correct notation.

Zinc powder, 0.5M CuSO₄ solution, 250ml plastic beakers, tissue paper, thermometers, analytical balance, stirring rods
2M HCl, 2M NaOH, 2M ethanoic acid, 2M ammonia solution, measuring cylinders, thermometers, 250ml plastic beakers, tissue paper
Student books, examples of standard enthalpy data, notation practice exercises
Energy cycle diagrams for methane formation, chalkboard illustrations, worked examples from textbook

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 44-47
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 49

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Energy Cycle Diagrams
Hess's Law Calculations
Lattice Energy and Hydration Energy

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Draw energy cycle diagrams
-Link enthalpy of formation with enthalpy of combustion
-Calculate unknown enthalpy changes using energy cycles
-Apply Hess's Law to determine enthalpy of formation

Work through energy cycle for formation of CO from carbon and oxygen using combustion data. Draw cycle showing Route 1 (direct combustion) and Route 2 (formation then combustion). Calculate ΔH°f(CO) = ΔH°c(C) - ΔH°c(CO). Practice with additional examples including ethanol formation.

Graph paper, energy cycle templates, combustion data tables, calculators
Worked examples, combustion data, calculators, step-by-step calculation sheets
Energy cycle diagrams, lattice energy and hydration energy data tables, calculators

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 52-54

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Factors Affecting Lattice and Hydration Energies
Definition and Types of Fuels

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain factors affecting lattice energy
-Explain factors affecting hydration energy
-Use data tables to identify trends
-Calculate enthalpies of solution for various ionic compounds

Analyze data tables showing lattice energies (Table 2.7) and hydration energies (Table 2.6). Identify trends: smaller ions and higher charges give larger lattice energies and hydration energies. Calculate heat of solution for MgCl₂ using: ΔH(solution) = +2489 + (-1891 + 2×(-384)) = -170 kJ/mol. Practice with other compounds.

Data tables from textbook, calculators, trend analysis exercises
Examples of different fuels, classification charts, pictures of fuel types

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 54-56

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Heating Values of Fuels
Factors in Fuel Selection

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define heating value of a fuel
-Calculate heating values from molar enthalpies of combustion
-Compare heating values of different fuels
-Explain units of heating value (kJ/g)

Calculate heating value of ethanol: ΔH°c = -1360 kJ/mol, Molar mass = 46 g/mol, Heating value = 1360/46 = 30 kJ/g. Compare heating values from Table 2.8: methane (55 kJ/g), fuel oil (45 kJ/g), charcoal (33 kJ/g), wood (17 kJ/g). Discuss significance of these values for fuel selection.

Heating value data table, calculators, fuel comparison charts
Fuel comparison tables, local fuel availability data, cost analysis sheets

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 56-57

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Environmental Effects of Fuels
Fuel Safety and Precautions
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
Bond Breaking, Formation and Phase Changes

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Identify environmental effects of burning fuels
-Explain formation and effects of acid rain
-Describe contribution to global warming
-State measures to reduce pollution from fuels
- Define endothermic and exothermic reactions using the ΔH notation
-Investigate what happens when ammonium nitrate and sodium hydroxide are separately dissolved in water
-Define enthalpy and enthalpy change
-Calculate enthalpy changes using ΔH = H(products) - H(reactants)

Discuss pollutants from fossil fuels: SO₂, SO₃, CO, NO₂ causing acid rain. Effects: damage to buildings, corrosion, acidification of lakes, soil leaching. CO₂ and hydrocarbons cause global warming leading to ice melting, climate change. Pollution reduction measures: catalytic converters, unleaded petrol, zero emission vehicles, alternative fuels.
Class experiment: Dissolve NH₄NO₃ and NaOH separately in water, record temperature changes in Table 2.1. Explain heat absorption vs evolution. Introduce enthalpy (H) and enthalpy change (ΔH). Calculate enthalpy changes from experimental data. Draw energy level diagrams showing relative energies.

Pictures of environmental damage, pollution data, examples of clean technology
Safety guideline charts, examples of fuel accidents, local safety case studies
250ml plastic beakers, tissue paper, NH₄NO₃, NaOH pellets, distilled water, thermometers, calculators
Ice, glass beakers, thermometers, heating source, graph paper, bond energy data tables

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 57-58
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 29-32

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES
REACTION RATES AND REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Determination of Enthalpy of Solution
Definition of Reaction Rate and Collision Theory

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Carry out experiments to determine enthalpy changes of solution
-Calculate enthalpy change using ΔH = mcΔT
-Write correct thermochemical equations
-Define molar heat of solution

Class experiment: Dissolve exactly 2.0g NH₄NO₃ and 2.0g NaOH separately in 100ml water. Record temperature changes. Calculate enthalpy changes using ΔH = mcΔT. Calculate moles and molar heat of solution. Write thermochemical equations: NH₄NO₃(s) + aq → NH₄NO₃(aq) ΔH = +25.2 kJ mol⁻¹.

2.0g samples of NH₄NO₃ and NaOH, plastic beakers, thermometers, analytical balance, calculators
Examples of fast/slow reactions, energy diagram templates, chalk/markers for diagrams

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 36-39

REACTION RATES AND REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate
Change of Reaction Rate with Time
Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain the effect of concentration on reaction rates
-Investigate reaction of magnesium with different concentrations of sulphuric acid
-Illustrate reaction rates graphically and interpret experimental data
-Calculate concentrations and plot graphs of concentration vs time

Class experiment: Label 4 conical flasks A-D. Add 40cm³ of 2M H₂SO₄ to A, dilute others with water (30+10, 20+20, 10+30 cm³). Drop 2cm magnesium ribbon into each, time complete dissolution. Record in Table 3.1. Calculate concentrations, plot graph. Explain: higher concentration → more collisions → faster reaction.

4 conical flasks, 2M H₂SO₄, distilled water, magnesium ribbon, stopwatch, measuring cylinders, graph paper
0.5M HCl, magnesium ribbon, conical flask, gas collection apparatus, graduated syringe, stopwatch, graph paper
0.15M Na₂S₂O₃, 2M HCl, conical flasks, water baths at different temperatures, paper with cross marked, stopwatch, thermometers

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 65-67

REACTION RATES AND REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Effect of Surface Area on Reaction Rate
Effect of Catalysts on Reaction Rate

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain the effect of surface area on reaction rates
-Investigate reaction of marble chips vs marble powder with HCl
-Compare reaction rates using gas collection
-Relate particle size to surface area and collision frequency

Class experiment: React 2.5g marble chips with 50cm³ of 1M HCl, collect CO₂ gas using apparatus in Fig 3.10. Record gas volume every 30 seconds. Repeat with 2.5g marble powder. Record in Table 3.5. Plot both curves on same graph. Write equation: CaCO₃ + 2HCl → CaCl₂ + H₂O + CO₂. Explain: smaller particles → larger surface area → more collision sites → faster reaction.

Marble chips, marble powder, 1M HCl, gas collection apparatus, balance, conical flasks, measuring cylinders, graph paper
20-volume H₂O₂, MnO₂ powder, gas collection apparatus, balance, conical flasks, filter paper, measuring cylinders

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 73-76

REACTION RATES AND REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Effect of Light and Pressure on Reaction Rate
Reversible Reactions
Chemical Equilibrium
Le Chatelier's Principle and Effect of Concentration

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Identify reactions affected by light
-Investigate effect of light on silver bromide decomposition
-Explain effect of pressure on gaseous reactions
-Give examples of photochemical reactions
- Explain chemical equilibrium
-Define dynamic equilibrium
-Investigate acid-base equilibrium using indicators
-Explain why equilibrium appears static but is actually dynamic

Teacher demonstration: Mix KBr and AgNO₃ solutions to form AgBr precipitate. Divide into 3 test tubes: place one in dark cupboard, one on bench, one in direct sunlight. Observe color changes after 10 minutes. Write equations. Discuss photochemical reactions: photography, Cl₂ + H₂, photosynthesis. Explain pressure effects on gaseous reactions through compression.
Experiment: Add 0.5M NaOH to 2cm³ in boiling tube with universal indicator. Add 0.5M HCl dropwise until green color (neutralization point). Continue adding base then acid alternately, observe color changes. Explain equilibrium as state where forward and backward reaction rates are equal. Use NH₄Cl ⇌ NH₃ + HCl example to show dynamic nature. Introduce equilibrium symbol ⇌.

0.1M KBr, 0.05M AgNO₃, test tubes, dark cupboard, direct light source, examples of photochemical reactions
CuSO₄·5H₂O crystals, boiling tubes, delivery tube, heating source, test tube holder
0.5M NaOH, 0.5M HCl, universal indicator, boiling tubes, droppers, examples of equilibrium systems
Bromine water, 2M NaOH, 2M HCl, beakers, chromate/dichromate solutions for demonstration

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 78-80
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 80-82

REACTION RATES AND REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Equilibrium
Industrial Applications - Haber Process

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain effect of pressure changes on equilibrium
-Explain effect of temperature changes on equilibrium
-Investigate NO₂/N₂O₄ equilibrium with temperature
-Apply Le Chatelier's Principle to industrial processes

Teacher demonstration: React copper turnings with concentrated HNO₃ to produce NO₂ gas in test tube. Heat and cool the tube, observe color changes: brown ⇌ pale yellow representing 2NO₂ ⇌ N₂O₄. Explain pressure effects using molecule count. Show Table 3.7 with pressure effects. Discuss temperature effects: heating favors endothermic direction, cooling favors exothermic direction. Use Table 3.8.

Copper turnings, concentrated HNO₃, test tubes, heating source, ice bath, gas collection apparatus, safety equipment
Haber Process flow diagram, equilibrium data showing temperature/pressure effects on NH₃ yield, industrial catalyst information

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 84-87

REACTION RATES AND REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Industrial Applications - Contact Process
Redox Reactions and Oxidation Numbers
Oxidation Numbers in Naming and Redox Identification
Displacement Reactions - Metals and Halogens

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Apply equilibrium principles to Contact Process
-Explain optimum conditions for sulphuric acid manufacture
-Compare different industrial equilibrium processes
-Evaluate economic factors in industrial chemistry

Analyze Contact Process: 2SO₂ + O₂ ⇌ 2SO₃ ΔH = -197 kJ/mol. Apply principles: high pressure favors forward reaction (3 molecules → 2 molecules), low temperature favors exothermic reaction. Explain optimum conditions: 450°C, atmospheric pressure, V₂O₅ catalyst, 96% conversion. Compare with Haber Process. Discuss catalyst choice and economic factors.

Contact Process flow diagram, comparison table with Haber Process, catalyst effectiveness data
Iron filings, 1M CuSO₄, 1M FeSO₄, 2M NaOH, 20V H₂O₂, test tubes
Compound charts, calculators, student books, practice exercises
Various metals (Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu), metal salt solutions, halogens (Cl₂, Br₂, I₂), halide solutions

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 89

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Electrochemical Cells and Cell Diagrams
Standard Electrode Potentials
Calculating Cell EMF and Predicting Reactions
Types of Electrochemical Cells
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions I

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define electrode potential and EMF
- Describe electrochemical cell components
- Draw cell diagrams using correct notation
- Explain electron flow and salt bridge function

Experiment 4.5: Set up Zn/Cu cell and other metal combinations
- Measure EMF values
- Practice writing cell notation
- Learn conventional representation methods

Metal electrodes, 1M metal salt solutions, voltmeters, salt bridges, connecting wires
Standard electrode potential table, diagrams, charts showing standard conditions
Calculators, electrode potential data, worked examples, practice problems
Cell diagrams, sample batteries, charts showing cell applications
Dilute and concentrated NaCl solutions, carbon electrodes, gas collection tubes, test equipment

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 123-128

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions II
Effect of Electrode Material on Electrolysis
Factors Affecting Electrolysis
Applications of Electrolysis I

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Analyze electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid
- Investigate electrolysis of metal salt solutions
- Measure gas volumes and ratios
- Apply theoretical predictions
Identify factors affecting preferential discharge
- Explain electrochemical series influence
- Discuss concentration and electrode effects
- Predict electrolysis products

Experiment 4.7: Electrolysis of dilute H₂SO₄ using U-tube
- Experiment 4.8: Electrolysis of MgSO₄ solution
- Collect and measure gases
- Analyze volume ratios
Review electrochemical series and discharge order
- Analysis of concentration effects on product formation
- Summary of all factors affecting electrolysis
- Practice prediction problems

U-tube apparatus, 2M H₂SO₄, 0.5M MgSO₄, platinum/carbon electrodes, gas syringes
Copper and carbon electrodes, 3M CuSO₄ solution, accurate balance, beakers, connecting wires
Electrochemical series chart, summary tables, practice exercises, student books
Iron nails, copper electrodes, CuSO₄ solution, power supply, industrial process diagrams

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 146-148
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 153-155

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Applications of Electrolysis II
Faraday's Laws and Quantitative Electrolysis
Electrolysis Calculations I

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe manufacture of NaOH and Cl₂ from brine
- Explain mercury cell operation
- Analyze industrial electrolysis processes
- Discuss environmental considerations

Study mercury cell for NaOH production
- Flow chart analysis of industrial processes
- Discussion on applications and environmental impact
- Purification of metals

Flow charts, mercury cell diagrams, environmental impact data, industrial case studies
Accurate balance, copper electrodes, CuSO₄ solution, ammeter, timer, calculators
Calculators, worked examples, practice problems, gas volume data, Faraday constant

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 155-157

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Electrolysis Calculations II
Advanced Applications and Problem Solving

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Determine charge on ions from electrolysis data
- Calculate current-time relationships
- Solve complex multi-step problems
- Apply concepts to industrial situations

Complex problems: Determine ionic charges
- Current-time-mass relationships
- Multi-step calculations
- Industrial calculation examples

Calculators, complex problem sets, industrial data, student books
Past papers, comprehensive problem sets, industrial case studies, calculators

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 161-164

METALS

Chief Ores of Metals and General Extraction Methods
Occurrence and Extraction of Sodium
Occurrence and Extraction of Aluminium I
Extraction of Aluminium II - Electrolysis
Occurrence and Extraction of Iron

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Name chief ores of common metals
- State formulas of metal ores
- Explain general methods of ore concentration
- Describe factors affecting extraction methods

Q/A: Review metallic bonding and reactivity
- Study Table 5.1 - metal ores and formulas
- Discussion on ore concentration methods
- Froth flotation demonstration

Chart of metal ores, ore samples if available, Table 5.1, flotation apparatus demonstration
Down's cell diagram, charts showing sodium occurrence, electrode reaction equations
Bauxite samples, NaOH solution, charts showing aluminium extraction steps, chemical equations
Electrolytic cell diagram, cryolite samples, graphite electrodes, energy consumption data
Blast furnace diagram, iron ore samples, coke, limestone, temperature zone charts

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 139-140

METALS

Extraction of Zinc
Extraction of Lead and Copper
Physical Properties of Metals
Chemical Properties I - Reaction with Air
Chemical Properties II - Reaction with Water
Chemical Properties III - Reaction with Chlorine

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe zinc ores and occurrence
- Compare reduction and electrolytic methods
- Write equations for zinc extraction
- Explain lead removal process
Test metal reactions with cold water and steam
- Arrange metals by reactivity
- Explain aluminium's apparent unreactivity
- Write chemical equations for reactions

Study zinc blende and calamine
- Compare two extraction methods
- Roasting equations and reduction process
- Discussion on electrolytic method advantages
Experiment 5.2: Test metals with cold water and steam
- Use Table 5.4 for observations
- Test solutions with indicators
- Arrange metals in reactivity order

Zinc ore samples, flow charts showing both methods, electrolytic cell diagrams
Lead and copper ore samples, extraction flow charts, electrolytic purification diagrams
Table 5.2, metal samples, conductivity apparatus, density measurement equipment
Deflagrating spoons, metal samples (Na, Al, Zn, Fe, Cu), Bunsen burners, safety equipment
Metal samples, cold water, steam generator, test tubes, universal indicator, safety equipment
Chlorine gas, gas jars, metal samples, tongs, deflagrating spoons, fume cupboard, safety equipment

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 145-148
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 154-156

METALS

Chemical Properties IV - Reaction with Acids
Uses of Metals I - Sodium and Aluminium

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Test metal reactions with dilute and concentrated acids
- Compare reaction patterns
- Write chemical equations
- Explain passivation effects

Experiment 5.4: Test metals with various acids - HCl, HNO₃, H₂SO₄
- Use Table 5.5 for systematic recording
- Observe gas evolution
- Discuss passivation

Various acids (dilute and concentrated), metal strips, test tubes, gas collection apparatus, safety equipment
Charts showing metal applications, alloy samples, aircraft parts, cooking vessels

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 157-158

METALS
METALS
RADIOACTIVITY
RADIOACTIVITY
RADIOACTIVITY

Uses of Metals II - Zinc, Copper and Iron
Steel Types and Alloys
Environmental Effects of Metal Extraction
Introduction, Nuclear Stability and Types of Radioactivity
Types of Radiation and Their Properties
Radioactive Decay and Half-Life Concept

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain galvanization process
- Describe copper electrical applications
- Compare iron, steel, and cast iron uses
- Analyze alloy compositions and properties
Identify environmental impacts of mining
- Explain pollution from metal extraction
- Describe waste management strategies
- Discuss NEMA regulations in Kenya

Study galvanization and rust prevention
- Copper in electrical applications
- Different types of steel and their compositions
- Alloy property comparisons
Analysis of mining environmental impact
- Air, water, and land pollution from extraction
- Waste management and slag utilization
- NEMA role and regulations

Galvanized sheets, copper wires, steel samples, alloy composition charts, brass and bronze samples
Steel samples with different compositions, carbon content charts, specialized tools, stainless steel items
Environmental impact case studies, pollution images, NEMA regulation documents, waste management examples
Periodic table, atomic structure charts, Table 7.1, nuclear stability diagrams
Radiation type charts, penetration diagrams, electric field illustrations, safety equipment charts
Graph paper, Table 7.2 data, calculators, decay curve examples, half-life data table

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 159-161
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 161-162

RADIOACTIVITY

Half-Life Calculations and Problem Solving
Nuclear Reactions and Equations
Radioactive Decay Series and Sequential Reactions
Nuclear Fission and Chain Reactions
Nuclear Fusion and Energy Comparisons

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Solve complex half-life problems
- Determine original amounts from remaining masses
- Apply step-by-step and formula methods
- Compare isotope decay rates

Worked examples on half-life calculations using both methods
- Practice determining original amounts
- Study various isotope half-lives
- Comprehensive problem-solving sessions

Calculators, comprehensive problem sets, worked examples, isotope half-life comparison tables
Nuclear equation examples, periodic table, conservation law charts, practice worksheets
Decay series charts, thorium series diagram, nuclide stability charts, practice decay series
Fission reaction diagrams, chain reaction illustrations, nuclear reactor diagrams, energy calculation examples
Fusion reaction diagrams, comparison tables, stellar fusion charts, energy comparison data

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 204-206

RADIOACTIVITY

Medical and Diagnostic Applications
Industrial, Agricultural and Dating Applications

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe medical applications of radioisotopes
- Explain cancer treatment using radiation
- Discuss diagnostic procedures and imaging
- Analyze therapeutic vs diagnostic uses

Study cobalt-60 and caesium-137 in cancer treatment
- Iodine-131 in thyroid monitoring
- Bone growth and fracture healing monitoring
- Sterilization of surgical instruments

Medical radioisotope charts, treatment procedure diagrams, diagnostic equipment images, case studies
Carbon dating examples, agricultural application charts, industrial use diagrams, food preservation data

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 208-209

RADIOACTIVITY

Radiation Hazards and Environmental Impact
Safety Measures and International Control

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Identify radiation health hazards
- Explain genetic mutation effects
- Discuss major nuclear accidents
- Analyze long-term environmental contamination

Study Chernobyl and Three Mile Island accidents
- Genetic mutation and cancer effects
- Long-term radiation exposure consequences
- Nuclear waste disposal challenges

Accident case studies, environmental impact data, radiation exposure charts, contamination maps
IAEA guidelines, safety protocol charts, monitoring equipment diagrams, international cooperation data

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 209-210

RADIOACTIVITY

Half-Life Problem Solving and Graph Analysis
Nuclear Equations and Conservation Laws

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Solve comprehensive half-life problems
- Analyze experimental decay data
- Plot and interpret decay curves
- Determine half-lives graphically

Plot decay curves from experimental data
- Determine half-lives from graphs
- Analyze count rate vs time data
- Complex half-life calculation problems

Graph paper, experimental data sets, calculators, statistical analysis examples, comprehensive problem sets
Nuclear equation worksheets, periodic table, decay series diagrams, conservation law examples

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 199-210