ORGANIC CHEMISTRY II

Introduction to Detergents and Soap Preparation
Mode of Action of Soap and Hard Water Effects

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define detergents and classify types
- Explain saponification process
- Prepare soap in laboratory
- Compare soapy and soapless detergents

Study soap vs soapless detergent differences
- Experiment 6.5: Saponify castor oil with NaOH
- Add salt for salting out
- Test soap formation

Castor oil, 4M NaOH, NaCl, evaporating dish, water bath, stirring rod, filter paper
Soap samples, distilled water, hard water (CaCl₂/MgSO₄ solutions), test tubes, demonstration materials

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 183-186

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY II

Soapless Detergents and Environmental Effects
Introduction to Polymers and Addition Polymerization

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain soapless detergent preparation
- Compare advantages/disadvantages
- Discuss environmental impact
- Analyze pollution effects

Study alkylbenzene sulphonate preparation
- Compare Table 6.9 - soap vs soapless
- Discussion on eutrophication and biodegradability
- Environmental awareness

Flow charts of detergent manufacture, Table 6.9, environmental impact data, sample detergents
Polymer samples, monomer structure charts, molecular models, calculators, polymer formation diagrams

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 188-191

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY II
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY II
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Addition Polymers - Types and Properties
Condensation Polymerization and Natural Polymers
Polymer Properties and Applications
Comprehensive Problem Solving and Integration
Definition of Acids

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Identify different addition polymers
- Draw structures from monomers
- Name common polymers
- Relate structure to properties
Compare advantages and disadvantages of synthetic polymers
- State uses of different polymers
- Discuss environmental concerns
- Analyze polymer selection

Study polystyrene, PTFE, perspex formation
- Practice identifying monomers from polymer structures
- Work through polymer calculation examples
- Properties analysis
Study Table 6.10 - polymer uses
- Advantages: strength, lightness, moldability
- Disadvantages: non-biodegradability, toxic gases
- Application analysis

Various polymer samples, structure identification exercises, calculation worksheets, Table 6.10
Nylon samples, rubber samples, condensation reaction diagrams, natural polymer examples
Table 6.10, polymer application samples, environmental impact studies, product examples
Comprehensive problem sets, past examination papers, calculators, organic chemistry summary charts
Magnesium strips, zinc carbonate, 2M HCl, 2M ethanoic acid, 2M H₂SO₄, 2M ethanedioic acid, test tubes, test tube rack

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 195-197
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 200-201

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Strength of Acids
Definition of Bases
Strength of Bases

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Compare strengths of acids using pH values
-Determine strengths of acids by comparing their electrical conductivity
-Classify acids as either strong or weak
-Explain complete and partial dissociation of acids

Class experiment: Test pH of 2M HCl and 2M ethanoic acid using universal indicator. Set up electrical conductivity apparatus with both acids. Record milliammeter readings. Compare results and explain in terms of hydrogen ion concentration. Discuss strong vs weak acid definitions.

2M HCl, 2M ethanoic acid, universal indicator, pH chart, electrical conductivity apparatus, milliammeter, carbon electrodes, beakers, wires
Calcium hydroxide, red litmus paper, phenolphthalein indicator, distilled water, test tubes, spatula, evaporating dish
2M NaOH, 2M ammonia solution, universal indicator, pH chart, electrical conductivity apparatus, milliammeter, carbon electrodes

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 3-5

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Acid-Base Reactions
Effect of Solvent on Acids
Effect of Solvent on Bases
Amphoteric Oxides and Hydroxides

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Write equations for acid-base reactions
-Explain neutralization process
-Identify products of acid-base reactions
-Demonstrate formation of salt and water

Q/A: Review acid and base definitions. Demonstrate neutralization reactions: HCl + NaOH, H₂SO₄ + Ca(OH)₂, HNO₃ + KOH. Write molecular and ionic equations. Explain H⁺ + OH⁻ → H₂O. Discuss salt formation. Use indicators to show neutralization point.

Various acids and bases from previous lessons, indicators, beakers, measuring cylinders, stirring rods
HCl gas, distilled water, methylbenzene, magnesium ribbon, calcium carbonate, litmus paper, test tubes, gas absorption apparatus
Dry ammonia gas, distilled water, methylbenzene, red litmus paper, test tubes, gas collection apparatus
Al₂O₃, ZnO, PbO, Zn(OH)₂, Al(OH)₃, Pb(OH)₂, 2M HNO₃, 2M NaOH, boiling tubes, heating source

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 6-7

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Definition of Salts and Precipitation
Solubility of Chlorides, Sulphates and Sulphites

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define a salt as an ionic compound
-Define a precipitate
-Investigate precipitation reactions
-Write ionic equations showing formation of precipitates

Q/A: Review salt definition from Book 2. Demonstrate precipitation: Add sodium carbonate to solutions containing Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Zn²⁺, Al³⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Ba²⁺, Pb²⁺ ions. Record observations. Write ionic equations for precipitate formation. Explain why Fe³⁺ and Al³⁺ give different results.

Na₂CO₃ solution, salt solutions containing various metal ions, test tubes, droppers
2M NaCl, 2M Na₂SO₄, 2M Na₂SO₃, 0.1M salt solutions, dilute HCl, test tubes, heating source

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 11-14

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Complex Ions Formation
Solubility and Saturated Solutions
Effect of Temperature on Solubility
Solubility Curves and Applications

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain formation of complex ions
-Investigate reactions with excess sodium hydroxide and ammonia
-Identify metal ions that form complex ions
-Write equations for complex ion formation
- Investigate the effect of temperature on solubility of potassium chlorate
-Record temperature at which crystals appear
-Calculate solubility at different temperatures
-Plot solubility curve

Class experiment: Add NaOH dropwise then in excess to Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Zn²⁺, Al³⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺ solutions. Repeat with NH₃ solution. Record observations showing precipitate formation and dissolution. Write equations for complex ion formation: [Zn(OH)₄]²⁻, [Al(OH)₄]⁻, [Pb(OH)₄]²⁻, [Zn(NH₃)₄]²⁺, [Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺.
Class experiment: Dissolve 4g KClO₃ in 15cm³ water by warming. Cool while stirring and note crystallization temperature. Add 5cm³ water portions and repeat until total volume is 40cm³. Calculate solubility in g/100g water for each temperature. Plot solubility vs temperature graph.

2M NaOH, 2M NH₃ solution, 0.5M salt solutions, test tubes, droppers
Saturated KNO₃ solution, evaporating dish, watch glass, measuring cylinder, thermometer, balance, heating source
KClO₃, measuring cylinders, thermometer, burette, boiling tubes, heating source, graph paper
Graph paper, ruler, pencil, calculator, data tables from textbook

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 15-16
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 18-20

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Fractional Crystallization
Hardness of Water - Investigation

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define fractional crystallization
-Apply knowledge of solubility curves in separation of salts
-Calculate masses of salts that crystallize
-Explain separation of salt mixtures

Work through separation problems using solubility data for KNO₃ and KClO₃ mixtures. Calculate which salt crystallizes first when cooled from 50°C to 20°C. Plot combined solubility curves. Discuss applications in Lake Magadi and Ngomeni salt works. Solve practice problems.

Calculator, graph paper, data tables, worked examples from textbook
Soap solution, burette, various salt solutions, conical flasks, distilled water, tap water, rainwater, heating source

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 21-22

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Types and Causes of Water Hardness
Effects of Hard Water

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define temporary and permanent hardness
-Explain causes of temporary hardness
-Explain causes of permanent hardness
-Write equations for decomposition of hydrogen carbonates

Q/A: Review previous experiment results. Explain temporary hardness caused by Ca(HCO₃)₂ and Mg(HCO₃)₂. Write decomposition equations when boiled. Explain permanent hardness caused by CaSO₄, MgSO₄, Ca(NO₃)₂, Mg(NO₃)₂. Discuss why permanent hardness cannot be removed by boiling.

Student books, examples from previous experiment, chalkboard for equations
Samples of fur deposits, pictures of scaled pipes, calculator for cost analysis

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 24-25

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Methods of Removing Hardness I
Methods of Removing Hardness II

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain removal of hardness by boiling
-Explain removal by distillation
-Write equations for these processes
-Compare effectiveness of different methods

Demonstrate boiling method: Boil hard water samples from previous experiments and test with soap. Write equations for Ca(HCO₃)₂ and Mg(HCO₃)₂ decomposition. Discuss distillation method using apparatus setup. Compare costs and effectiveness. Explain why boiling only removes temporary hardness.

Hard water samples, heating source, soap solution, distillation apparatus diagram
Na₂CO₃ solution, hard water samples, ion exchange resin diagram, Ca(OH)₂, NH₃ solution

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 25-26

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
Enthalpy Notation and Energy Content
Bond Breaking and Bond Formation
Latent Heat of Fusion and Vaporization

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define endothermic and exothermic reactions using ΔH notation
-Investigate temperature changes when ammonium nitrate and sodium hydroxide dissolve in water
-Explain observations made during dissolution
-Draw energy level diagrams for endothermic and exothermic reactions
- Explain that energy changes are due to bond breaking and bond formation
-Describe bond breaking as endothermic and bond formation as exothermic
-Investigate energy changes during melting and boiling
-Plot heating curves for pure substances

Class experiment: Wrap 250ml plastic beakers with tissue paper. Dissolve 2 spatulafuls of NH₄NO₃ in 100ml distilled water, record temperature changes. Repeat with NaOH pellets. Compare initial and final temperatures. Draw energy level diagrams showing relative energies of reactants and products.
Class experiment: Heat crushed ice while stirring with thermometer. Record temperature every minute until ice melts completely, then continue until water boils. Plot temperature-time graph. Explain constant temperature during melting and boiling in terms of bond breaking. Discuss latent heat of fusion and vaporization.

250ml plastic beakers, tissue paper, rubber bands, NH₄NO₃, NaOH pellets, distilled water, thermometers, spatulas, measuring cylinders
Student books, calculators, worked examples from textbook, chalkboard for calculations
Crushed pure ice, 250ml glass beakers, thermometers, heating source, stopwatch, graph paper, stirring rods
Data tables showing molar heats of fusion/vaporization, calculators, heating curves from previous lesson

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 29-31
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 32-35

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Bond Energy Calculations

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Calculate energy changes in reactions using bond energies
-Apply the formula: Heat of reaction = Bond breaking energy + Bond formation energy
-Determine whether reactions are exothermic or endothermic
-Use bond energy data to solve problems

Work through formation of HCl from H₂ and Cl₂ using bond energies. Calculate energy required to break H-H and Cl-Cl bonds. Calculate energy released when H-Cl bonds form. Apply formula: ΔH = Energy absorbed - Energy released. Practice with additional examples. Discuss why calculated values may differ from experimental values.

Bond energy data tables, calculators, worked examples, practice problems

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 35-36

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Determination of Enthalpy of Solution I
Thermochemical Equations

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Determine the enthalpy changes of solution of ammonium nitrate and sodium hydroxide
-Calculate enthalpy change using ΔH = mcΔT
-Calculate number of moles of solute dissolved
-Determine molar heat of solution

Class experiment: Dissolve exactly 2.0g NH₄NO₃ in 100ml distilled water in plastic beaker. Record temperature change. Repeat with 2.0g NaOH. Calculate enthalpy changes using ΔH = mcΔT where m = 100g, c = 4.2 kJ kg⁻¹K⁻¹. Calculate moles dissolved and molar heat of solution.

250ml plastic beakers, 2.0g samples of NH₄NO₃ and NaOH, distilled water, thermometers, measuring cylinders, analytical balance, calculators
Results from previous experiment, graph paper for energy level diagrams, practice examples

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 36-38

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Enthalpy of Solution of Concentrated Sulphuric Acid
Enthalpy of Combustion

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Determine heat of solution of concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid
-Apply safety precautions when handling concentrated acids
-Calculate enthalpy change considering density and purity
-Write thermochemical equation for the reaction

Teacher demonstration: Carefully add 2cm³ concentrated H₂SO₄ to 98cm³ distilled water in wrapped beaker (NEVER vice versa). Record temperature change. Calculate mass of acid using density (1.84 g/cm³) and purity (98%). Calculate molar heat of solution. Emphasize safety - always add acid to water.

Concentrated H₂SO₄, distilled water, 250ml plastic beaker, tissue paper, measuring cylinders, thermometer, safety equipment
Ethanol, small bottles with wicks, 250ml glass beakers, tripod stands, wire gauze, thermometers, analytical balance, measuring cylinders

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 39-41

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Enthalpy of Displacement
Enthalpy of Neutralization
Standard Conditions and Standard Enthalpy Changes
Hess's Law - Introduction and Theory

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define molar heat of displacement
-Investigate displacement of copper(II) ions by zinc
-Calculate molar heat of displacement
-Explain relationship between position in reactivity series and heat of displacement
- Identify standard conditions for measuring enthalpy changes
-Define standard enthalpy changes using ΔH° notation
-Explain importance of standard conditions
-Use subscripts to denote different types of enthalpy changes

Class experiment: Add 4.0g zinc powder to 100cm³ of 0.5M CuSO₄ solution in wrapped plastic beaker. Record temperature change and observations. Calculate moles of Zn used and Cu²⁺ displaced. Determine molar heat of displacement. Write ionic equation. Discuss why excess zinc is used. Compare with theoretical value.
Q/A: Review previous enthalpy measurements. Introduce standard conditions: 25°C (298K) and 1 atmosphere pressure (101.325 kPa). Explain ΔH° notation and subscripts (ΔH°c for combustion, ΔH°f for formation, etc.). Discuss why standard conditions are necessary for comparison. Practice using correct notation.

Zinc powder, 0.5M CuSO₄ solution, 250ml plastic beakers, tissue paper, thermometers, analytical balance, stirring rods
2M HCl, 2M NaOH, 2M ethanoic acid, 2M ammonia solution, measuring cylinders, thermometers, 250ml plastic beakers, tissue paper
Student books, examples of standard enthalpy data, notation practice exercises
Energy cycle diagrams for methane formation, chalkboard illustrations, worked examples from textbook

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 44-47
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 49

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Energy Cycle Diagrams
Hess's Law Calculations

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Draw energy cycle diagrams
-Link enthalpy of formation with enthalpy of combustion
-Calculate unknown enthalpy changes using energy cycles
-Apply Hess's Law to determine enthalpy of formation

Work through energy cycle for formation of CO from carbon and oxygen using combustion data. Draw cycle showing Route 1 (direct combustion) and Route 2 (formation then combustion). Calculate ΔH°f(CO) = ΔH°c(C) - ΔH°c(CO). Practice with additional examples including ethanol formation.

Graph paper, energy cycle templates, combustion data tables, calculators
Worked examples, combustion data, calculators, step-by-step calculation sheets

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 52-54

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Lattice Energy and Hydration Energy
Factors Affecting Lattice and Hydration Energies

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define lattice energy and hydration energy
-Explain relationship between heat of solution, lattice energy and hydration energy
-Draw energy cycles for dissolution of ionic compounds
-Calculate heat of solution using Born-Haber type cycles

Explain dissolution of NaCl: first lattice breaks (endothermic), then ions hydrate (exothermic). Define lattice energy as energy to form ionic solid from gaseous ions. Define hydration energy as energy when gaseous ions become hydrated. Draw energy cycle: ΔH(solution) = ΔH(lattice) + ΔH(hydration). Calculate for NaCl.

Energy cycle diagrams, lattice energy and hydration energy data tables, calculators
Data tables from textbook, calculators, trend analysis exercises

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 54-56

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Definition and Types of Fuels
Heating Values of Fuels

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define a fuel
-Classify fuels as solid, liquid, or gaseous
-State examples of each type of fuel
-Explain energy conversion in fuel combustion

Q/A: List fuels used at home and school. Define fuel as "substance that produces useful energy when it undergoes chemical or nuclear reaction." Classify examples: solids (coal, charcoal, wood), liquids (petrol, kerosene, diesel), gases (natural gas, biogas, LPG). Discuss energy conversions during combustion.

Examples of different fuels, classification charts, pictures of fuel types
Heating value data table, calculators, fuel comparison charts

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 56

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Factors in Fuel Selection
Environmental Effects of Fuels
Fuel Safety and Precautions
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- State factors that influence choice of fuel
-Explain why different fuels are chosen for different purposes
-Compare advantages and disadvantages of various fuels
-Apply selection criteria to real situations
- State precautions necessary when using fuels
-Explain safety measures for different fuel types
-Identify hazards associated with improper fuel handling
-Apply safety principles to local situations

Discuss seven factors: heating value, ease of combustion, availability, transportation, storage, environmental effects, cost. Compare wood/charcoal for domestic use vs methylhydrazine for rockets. Analyze why each is suitable for its purpose. Students suggest best fuels for cooking, heating, transport in their area.
Discuss safety precautions: ventilation for charcoal stoves (CO poisoning), not running engines in closed garages, proper gas cylinder storage, fuel storage away from populated areas, keeping away from fuel spills. Relate to local situations and accidents. Students identify potential hazards in their environment.

Fuel comparison tables, local fuel availability data, cost analysis sheets
Pictures of environmental damage, pollution data, examples of clean technology
Safety guideline charts, examples of fuel accidents, local safety case studies
250ml plastic beakers, tissue paper, NH₄NO₃, NaOH pellets, distilled water, thermometers, calculators

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 57
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 57-58

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Bond Breaking, Formation and Phase Changes

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain that energy changes are due to bond breaking and bond formation
-Investigate energy changes when solids and liquids are heated
-Define latent heat of fusion and vaporization
-Calculate energy changes using bond energies

Class experiment: Heat ice to melting then boiling, record temperature every minute. Plot heating curve. Explain constant temperature periods. Define latent heat of fusion/vaporization. Calculate energy changes in H₂ + Cl₂ → 2HCl using bond energies. Apply formula: ΔH = Energy absorbed - Energy released.

Ice, glass beakers, thermometers, heating source, graph paper, bond energy data tables

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 32-36

ENERGY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES
REACTION RATES AND REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Determination of Enthalpy of Solution
Definition of Reaction Rate and Collision Theory

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Carry out experiments to determine enthalpy changes of solution
-Calculate enthalpy change using ΔH = mcΔT
-Write correct thermochemical equations
-Define molar heat of solution

Class experiment: Dissolve exactly 2.0g NH₄NO₃ and 2.0g NaOH separately in 100ml water. Record temperature changes. Calculate enthalpy changes using ΔH = mcΔT. Calculate moles and molar heat of solution. Write thermochemical equations: NH₄NO₃(s) + aq → NH₄NO₃(aq) ΔH = +25.2 kJ mol⁻¹.

2.0g samples of NH₄NO₃ and NaOH, plastic beakers, thermometers, analytical balance, calculators
Examples of fast/slow reactions, energy diagram templates, chalk/markers for diagrams

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 36-39

REACTION RATES AND REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate
Change of Reaction Rate with Time

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain the effect of concentration on reaction rates
-Investigate reaction of magnesium with different concentrations of sulphuric acid
-Illustrate reaction rates graphically and interpret experimental data
-Calculate concentrations and plot graphs of concentration vs time

Class experiment: Label 4 conical flasks A-D. Add 40cm³ of 2M H₂SO₄ to A, dilute others with water (30+10, 20+20, 10+30 cm³). Drop 2cm magnesium ribbon into each, time complete dissolution. Record in Table 3.1. Calculate concentrations, plot graph. Explain: higher concentration → more collisions → faster reaction.

4 conical flasks, 2M H₂SO₄, distilled water, magnesium ribbon, stopwatch, measuring cylinders, graph paper
0.5M HCl, magnesium ribbon, conical flask, gas collection apparatus, graduated syringe, stopwatch, graph paper

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 65-67

REACTION RATES AND REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate
Effect of Surface Area on Reaction Rate
Effect of Catalysts on Reaction Rate
Effect of Light and Pressure on Reaction Rate

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain the effect of temperature on reaction rates
-Investigate temperature effects using sodium thiosulphate and HCl
-Plot graphs of time vs temperature and 1/time vs temperature
-Apply collision theory to explain temperature effects
- Explain effects of suitable catalysts on reaction rates
-Investigate decomposition of hydrogen peroxide with and without catalyst
-Define catalyst and explain how catalysts work
-Compare activation energies in catalyzed vs uncatalyzed reactions

Class experiment: Place 30cm³ of 0.15M Na₂S₂O₃ in flasks at room temp, 30°C, 40°C, 50°C, 60°C. Mark cross on paper under flask. Add 5cm³ of 2M HCl, time until cross disappears. Record in Table 3.4. Plot time vs temperature and 1/time vs temperature graphs. Explain: higher temperature → more kinetic energy → more effective collisions.
Class experiment: Decompose 5cm³ of 20-volume H₂O₂ in 45cm³ water without catalyst, collect O₂ gas. Repeat adding 2g MnO₂ powder. Record gas volumes as in Fig 3.12. Compare rates and final mass of MnO₂. Write equation: 2H₂O₂ → 2H₂O + O₂. Define catalyst and explain how it lowers activation energy. Show energy diagrams for both pathways.

0.15M Na₂S₂O₃, 2M HCl, conical flasks, water baths at different temperatures, paper with cross marked, stopwatch, thermometers
Marble chips, marble powder, 1M HCl, gas collection apparatus, balance, conical flasks, measuring cylinders, graph paper
20-volume H₂O₂, MnO₂ powder, gas collection apparatus, balance, conical flasks, filter paper, measuring cylinders
0.1M KBr, 0.05M AgNO₃, test tubes, dark cupboard, direct light source, examples of photochemical reactions

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 70-73
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 76-78

REACTION RATES AND REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Reversible Reactions
Chemical Equilibrium

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- State examples of simple reversible reactions
-Investigate heating of hydrated copper(II) sulphate
-Write equations for reversible reactions using double arrows
-Distinguish between reversible and irreversible reactions

Class experiment: Heat CuSO₄·5H₂O crystals in boiling tube A, collect liquid in tube B as in Fig 3.15. Observe color changes: blue → white + colorless liquid. Pour liquid back into tube A, observe return to blue. Write equation with double arrows: CuSO₄·5H₂O ⇌ CuSO₄ + 5H₂O. Give other examples: NH₄Cl ⇌ NH₃ + HCl. Compare with irreversible reactions.

CuSO₄·5H₂O crystals, boiling tubes, delivery tube, heating source, test tube holder
0.5M NaOH, 0.5M HCl, universal indicator, boiling tubes, droppers, examples of equilibrium systems

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 78-80

REACTION RATES AND REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Le Chatelier's Principle and Effect of Concentration
Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Equilibrium

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- State Le Chatelier's Principle
-Explain effect of concentration changes on equilibrium position
-Investigate bromine water equilibrium with acid/base addition
-Apply Le Chatelier's Principle to predict equilibrium shifts

Experiment: Add 2M NaOH dropwise to 20cm³ bromine water until colorless. Then add 2M HCl until excess, observe color return. Write equation: Br₂ + H₂O ⇌ HBr + HBrO. Explain Le Chatelier's Principle: "When change applied to system at equilibrium, system moves to oppose that change." Demonstrate with chromate/dichromate equilibrium: CrO₄²⁻ + H⁺ ⇌ Cr₂O₇²⁻ + H₂O.

Bromine water, 2M NaOH, 2M HCl, beakers, chromate/dichromate solutions for demonstration
Copper turnings, concentrated HNO₃, test tubes, heating source, ice bath, gas collection apparatus, safety equipment

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 82-84

REACTION RATES AND REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Industrial Applications - Haber Process
Industrial Applications - Contact Process

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Apply equilibrium principles to Haber Process
-Explain optimum conditions for ammonia manufacture
-Calculate effect of temperature and pressure on yield
-Explain role of catalysts in industrial processes

Analyze Haber Process: N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃ ΔH = -92 kJ/mol. Apply Le Chatelier's Principle: high pressure favors forward reaction (4 molecules → 2 molecules), low temperature favors exothermic forward reaction but slows rate. Explain optimum conditions: 450°C temperature, 200 atmospheres pressure, iron catalyst. Discuss removal of NH₃ to shift equilibrium right. Economic considerations.

Haber Process flow diagram, equilibrium data showing temperature/pressure effects on NH₃ yield, industrial catalyst information
Contact Process flow diagram, comparison table with Haber Process, catalyst effectiveness data

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 87-89

RADIOACTIVITY

Introduction, Nuclear Stability and Types of Radioactivity
Types of Radiation and Their Properties
Radioactive Decay and Half-Life Concept
Half-Life Calculations and Problem Solving
Nuclear Reactions and Equations
Radioactive Decay Series and Sequential Reactions
Nuclear Fission and Chain Reactions
Nuclear Fusion and Energy Comparisons

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define nuclide, isotope, and radioisotope
- Compare nuclear vs chemical reactions
- Explain neutron/proton ratios
- Distinguish natural from artificial radioactivity
Write balanced nuclear equations
- Apply conservation laws for mass and atomic numbers
- Explain alpha and beta emission effects
- Balance complex nuclear reactions

Q/A: Review atomic structure from Form 2
- Study Table 7.1 - nuclear vs chemical reactions
- Analysis of neutron/proton ratios and nuclear stability
- Discussion on natural vs artificial radioactivity
Practice writing nuclear equations for alpha emission
- Study beta emission examples
- Apply mass and atomic number conservation
- Balance various nuclear reactions with missing nuclides

Periodic table, atomic structure charts, Table 7.1, nuclear stability diagrams
Radiation type charts, penetration diagrams, electric field illustrations, safety equipment charts
Graph paper, Table 7.2 data, calculators, decay curve examples, half-life data table
Calculators, comprehensive problem sets, worked examples, isotope half-life comparison tables
Nuclear equation examples, periodic table, conservation law charts, practice worksheets
Decay series charts, thorium series diagram, nuclide stability charts, practice decay series
Fission reaction diagrams, chain reaction illustrations, nuclear reactor diagrams, energy calculation examples
Fusion reaction diagrams, comparison tables, stellar fusion charts, energy comparison data

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 199-201
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 205-207

RADIOACTIVITY

Medical and Diagnostic Applications
Industrial, Agricultural and Dating Applications

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe medical applications of radioisotopes
- Explain cancer treatment using radiation
- Discuss diagnostic procedures and imaging
- Analyze therapeutic vs diagnostic uses

Study cobalt-60 and caesium-137 in cancer treatment
- Iodine-131 in thyroid monitoring
- Bone growth and fracture healing monitoring
- Sterilization of surgical instruments

Medical radioisotope charts, treatment procedure diagrams, diagnostic equipment images, case studies
Carbon dating examples, agricultural application charts, industrial use diagrams, food preservation data

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 208-209

RADIOACTIVITY

Radiation Hazards and Environmental Impact
Safety Measures and International Control

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Identify radiation health hazards
- Explain genetic mutation effects
- Discuss major nuclear accidents
- Analyze long-term environmental contamination

Study Chernobyl and Three Mile Island accidents
- Genetic mutation and cancer effects
- Long-term radiation exposure consequences
- Nuclear waste disposal challenges

Accident case studies, environmental impact data, radiation exposure charts, contamination maps
IAEA guidelines, safety protocol charts, monitoring equipment diagrams, international cooperation data

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 209-210

RADIOACTIVITY

Half-Life Problem Solving and Graph Analysis
Nuclear Equations and Conservation Laws

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Solve comprehensive half-life problems
- Analyze experimental decay data
- Plot and interpret decay curves
- Determine half-lives graphically

Plot decay curves from experimental data
- Determine half-lives from graphs
- Analyze count rate vs time data
- Complex half-life calculation problems

Graph paper, experimental data sets, calculators, statistical analysis examples, comprehensive problem sets
Nuclear equation worksheets, periodic table, decay series diagrams, conservation law examples

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 199-210

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Redox Reactions and Oxidation Numbers
Oxidation Numbers in Naming and Redox Identification
Displacement Reactions - Metals and Halogens
Electrochemical Cells and Cell Diagrams
Standard Electrode Potentials
Calculating Cell EMF and Predicting Reactions
Types of Electrochemical Cells
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions I

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define redox reactions in terms of electron transfer
- State rules for assigning oxidation numbers
- Calculate oxidation numbers in compounds
- Identify oxidation and reduction processes
Define standard electrode potential
- Describe standard hydrogen electrode
- List standard conditions
- Use electrode potential tables effectively

Q/A: Review previous knowledge
- Experiment 4.1: Iron filings + copper(II) sulphate
- Experiment 4.2: Iron(II) ions + hydrogen peroxide
- Discussion on oxidation number rules with examples
Study standard hydrogen electrode setup
- Discussion of standard conditions (25°C, 1M, 1 atm)
- Introduction to electrode potential series
- Practice reading potential tables

Iron filings, 1M CuSO₄, 1M FeSO₄, 2M NaOH, 20V H₂O₂, test tubes
Compound charts, calculators, student books, practice exercises
Various metals (Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu), metal salt solutions, halogens (Cl₂, Br₂, I₂), halide solutions
Metal electrodes, 1M metal salt solutions, voltmeters, salt bridges, connecting wires
Standard electrode potential table, diagrams, charts showing standard conditions
Calculators, electrode potential data, worked examples, practice problems
Cell diagrams, sample batteries, charts showing cell applications
Dilute and concentrated NaCl solutions, carbon electrodes, gas collection tubes, test equipment

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 108-116
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 129-133

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions II
Effect of Electrode Material on Electrolysis

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Analyze electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid
- Investigate electrolysis of metal salt solutions
- Measure gas volumes and ratios
- Apply theoretical predictions

Experiment 4.7: Electrolysis of dilute H₂SO₄ using U-tube
- Experiment 4.8: Electrolysis of MgSO₄ solution
- Collect and measure gases
- Analyze volume ratios

U-tube apparatus, 2M H₂SO₄, 0.5M MgSO₄, platinum/carbon electrodes, gas syringes
Copper and carbon electrodes, 3M CuSO₄ solution, accurate balance, beakers, connecting wires

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 146-148

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Factors Affecting Electrolysis
Applications of Electrolysis I

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Identify factors affecting preferential discharge
- Explain electrochemical series influence
- Discuss concentration and electrode effects
- Predict electrolysis products

Review electrochemical series and discharge order
- Analysis of concentration effects on product formation
- Summary of all factors affecting electrolysis
- Practice prediction problems

Electrochemical series chart, summary tables, practice exercises, student books
Iron nails, copper electrodes, CuSO₄ solution, power supply, industrial process diagrams

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 153-155

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Applications of Electrolysis II
Faraday's Laws and Quantitative Electrolysis

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe manufacture of NaOH and Cl₂ from brine
- Explain mercury cell operation
- Analyze industrial electrolysis processes
- Discuss environmental considerations

Study mercury cell for NaOH production
- Flow chart analysis of industrial processes
- Discussion on applications and environmental impact
- Purification of metals

Flow charts, mercury cell diagrams, environmental impact data, industrial case studies
Accurate balance, copper electrodes, CuSO₄ solution, ammeter, timer, calculators

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 155-157

ELECTROCHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
METALS
METALS

Electrolysis Calculations I
Electrolysis Calculations II
Advanced Applications and Problem Solving
Chief Ores of Metals and General Extraction Methods
Occurrence and Extraction of Sodium

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Calculate mass of products from electrolysis
- Determine volumes of gases evolved
- Apply Faraday's laws to numerical problems
- Solve basic electrolysis calculations
Solve examination-type electrochemistry problems
- Apply all concepts in integrated problems
- Analyze real-world electrochemical processes
- Practice complex calculations

Worked examples: Mass and volume calculations
- Problems involving different ions
- Practice with Faraday constant
- Basic numerical problems
Comprehensive problems combining redox, cells, and electrolysis
- Past examination questions
- Industrial case study analysis
- Advanced problem-solving techniques

Calculators, worked examples, practice problems, gas volume data, Faraday constant
Calculators, complex problem sets, industrial data, student books
Past papers, comprehensive problem sets, industrial case studies, calculators
Chart of metal ores, ore samples if available, Table 5.1, flotation apparatus demonstration
Down's cell diagram, charts showing sodium occurrence, electrode reaction equations

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 161-164
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 108-164

METALS

Occurrence and Extraction of Aluminium I
Extraction of Aluminium II - Electrolysis
Occurrence and Extraction of Iron

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe occurrence and ores of aluminium
- Explain ore concentration process
- Write equations for bauxite purification
- Describe amphoteric nature of aluminium oxide

Study aluminium occurrence and bauxite composition
- Demonstration of amphoteric properties
- Equations for bauxite dissolution in NaOH
- Discussion on impurity removal

Bauxite samples, NaOH solution, charts showing aluminium extraction steps, chemical equations
Electrolytic cell diagram, cryolite samples, graphite electrodes, energy consumption data
Blast furnace diagram, iron ore samples, coke, limestone, temperature zone charts

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 142-143

METALS

Extraction of Zinc
Extraction of Lead and Copper
Physical Properties of Metals
Chemical Properties I - Reaction with Air

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe zinc ores and occurrence
- Compare reduction and electrolytic methods
- Write equations for zinc extraction
- Explain lead removal process

Study zinc blende and calamine
- Compare two extraction methods
- Roasting equations and reduction process
- Discussion on electrolytic method advantages

Zinc ore samples, flow charts showing both methods, electrolytic cell diagrams
Lead and copper ore samples, extraction flow charts, electrolytic purification diagrams
Table 5.2, metal samples, conductivity apparatus, density measurement equipment
Deflagrating spoons, metal samples (Na, Al, Zn, Fe, Cu), Bunsen burners, safety equipment

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 145-148

METALS

Chemical Properties II - Reaction with Water
Chemical Properties III - Reaction with Chlorine

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Test metal reactions with cold water and steam
- Arrange metals by reactivity
- Explain aluminium's apparent unreactivity
- Write chemical equations for reactions

Experiment 5.2: Test metals with cold water and steam
- Use Table 5.4 for observations
- Test solutions with indicators
- Arrange metals in reactivity order

Metal samples, cold water, steam generator, test tubes, universal indicator, safety equipment
Chlorine gas, gas jars, metal samples, tongs, deflagrating spoons, fume cupboard, safety equipment

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 154-156

METALS

Chemical Properties IV - Reaction with Acids
Uses of Metals I - Sodium and Aluminium
Uses of Metals II - Zinc, Copper and Iron
Steel Types and Alloys

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Test metal reactions with dilute and concentrated acids
- Compare reaction patterns
- Write chemical equations
- Explain passivation effects
Explain galvanization process
- Describe copper electrical applications
- Compare iron, steel, and cast iron uses
- Analyze alloy compositions and properties

Experiment 5.4: Test metals with various acids - HCl, HNO₃, H₂SO₄
- Use Table 5.5 for systematic recording
- Observe gas evolution
- Discuss passivation
Study galvanization and rust prevention
- Copper in electrical applications
- Different types of steel and their compositions
- Alloy property comparisons

Various acids (dilute and concentrated), metal strips, test tubes, gas collection apparatus, safety equipment
Charts showing metal applications, alloy samples, aircraft parts, cooking vessels
Galvanized sheets, copper wires, steel samples, alloy composition charts, brass and bronze samples
Steel samples with different compositions, carbon content charts, specialized tools, stainless steel items

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 157-158
KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 159-161

METALS

Environmental Effects of Metal Extraction

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Identify environmental impacts of mining
- Explain pollution from metal extraction
- Describe waste management strategies
- Discuss NEMA regulations in Kenya

Analysis of mining environmental impact
- Air, water, and land pollution from extraction
- Waste management and slag utilization
- NEMA role and regulations

Environmental impact case studies, pollution images, NEMA regulation documents, waste management examples

KLB Secondary Chemistry Form 4, Pages 161-162